Electroactive materials for rechargeable batteries

ABSTRACT

An as-prepared cathode for a secondary battery, the cathode including an alkaline source material including an alkali metal oxide, an alkali metal sulfide, an alkali metal salt, or a combination of any two or more thereof.

GOVERNMENT RIGHTS

The United States Government has rights in this invention pursuant toContract No. DE-AC02-06CH11357 between the U.S. Department of Energy andUChicago Argonne, LLC, representing Argonne National Laboratory.

FIELD

The present technology is generally related to secondary batteries. Moreparticularly, the technology is related to electroactive materials thatinclude lithium or sodium.

SUMMARY

In one aspect, an as-prepared cathode for a secondary battery isprovided, the cathode including an alkaline source material thatincludes an alkali metal oxide, an alkali metal sulfide, an alkali metalsalt, or a combination of any two or more such alkaline sourcematerials. In some embodiments, the alkaline source material includes alithium source material, a sodium source material, or a combinationthereof. In some embodiments, the alkaline source material includesLi₂O, Li₂O₂, Li₂S, LiF, LiCl, Li₂Br, or a mixture of any two or morethereof. In some embodiments, the alkaline source material includesNa₂O, Na₂O₂, Na₂S, NaF, NaCl, or a mixture of any two or more suchsource materials. The alkaline source may include Li₂O. In someembodiments, the as-prepared cathode may further include a primarycathodic material. Such a primary cathodic material may include alithiated primary cathodic material, a non-lithiated primary cathodicmaterial, or a sodiated primary cathodic material. In some embodiments,the primary cathodic material includes a lithiated material configuredto reversibly insert or de-insert lithium from about 1.2 V to about 5.0V.

In another aspect, a secondary battery including the as-preparedcathode, above, is provided. In some embodiments, the secondary batteryis a lithium-air battery, or a lithium ion battery.

In another aspect, an as-prepared secondary battery is provided, thebattery including a cathode including a positive active material and aalkali source material, the alkali source material including an alkalimetal oxide, an alkali metal sulfide, an alkali metal salt, or acombination of any two or more thereof; an anode including an anodeactive material; an electrolyte; and a separator. In some embodiments,the as-parepared secondary battery may be a lithium-ion battery, alithium-air battery, a lithium-sulfur battery, a sodium-ion battery, asodium-sulfur battery, or a sodium-air battery. In some embodiments ofthe battery, the alkaline source material is Li₂O, and the cathodefurther includes a lithium transition metal rich oxide composite. Thelithium transition metal rich oxide composite may be a composite offormula LiMO₂-Li₂M′O₃, wherein M and M′ are Ni, Mn, V, Ti, Cu, Co, Cr,or Fe. In some embodiments M and M′ are the same and in otherembodiments, they are different.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a simplified illustration of secondary battery constructionincluding a cathode, anode, separator and electrolyte.

FIG. 2 illustrates a typical initial charge curve of a Li₂O/Li cell.

FIGS. 3A and 3B are (A) charge and discharge curves and (B) cycle life,respectively, of a MnO₂/Li half cell, according to the examples.

FIGS. 4A and 4B are (A) charge and discharge curves and (B) cyclinglife, respectively, of a Li₂O blend with a MnO₂/Li half cell, accordingto the examples.

FIGS. 5A and 5B are (A) charge and discharge curves and (B) cyclinglife, respectively, of a Li₂O blend with MnO₂/graphite full cell,according to the examples.

FIGS. 6A and 6B are (A) initial charge and discharge curves and (B)cycle life, respectively, of a Li₂O blend with V₂O₅/Li half cell,according to the examples.

FIG. 7 is an initial charge and discharge curve of a spinel LiMn₂O₄/Lihalf cell, according to the examples.

FIG. 8 is an initial charge and discharge curve of a Si/Li half cell,according to the examples.

FIG. 9 is an initial charge and discharge curve of a spinel LiMn₂O₄blended with a Li₂O/Li half cell, according to the examples.

FIGS. 10A and 10B are (A) initial charge and discharge curves and (B)cycle life, respectively, of a spinel LiMn₂O₄/Si full cell, according tothe examples.

FIGS. 11A and 11B are (A) initial charge and discharge curves and (B)cycle life, respectively, of a spinel LiMn₂O₄ blended with a Li₂O/Sifull cell, according to the examples.

FIGS. 12A and B are the initial charge and discharge curves of a fullsodium battery using Na_(0.75)Mn_(0.70)Ni_(0.23)O₂ with lithia (12B) andwithout lithia (12A) as cathode, and using hard carbon as an anode,according to the examples.

FIG. 13 is the initial charge and discharge curve of a half cell lithiumbattery using lithium manganese rich composite material (LiMO₂ Li₂MnO₃,M=Ni, Mn, Co) Li_(1.2)Ni_(0.175)Co_(0.1)Mn_(0.525)O₂ blended with Li₂O,super P carbon and PVDF binder in ratio 32/48/10/10 on a weight basis,respectively, according to the example.

FIG. 14 is the initial charge and discharge curve of a half cell lithiumbattery using Li_(1.2)Ni_(0.15)Co_(0.1)Mn_(0.55)O₂ blended with Li₂O,super P carbon and PVDF binder in ratio 30/30/30/10 on a weight basis,respectively, according to the example.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Various embodiments are described hereinafter. It should be noted thatthe specific embodiments are not intended as an exhaustive descriptionor as a limitation to the broader aspects discussed herein. One aspectdescribed in conjunction with a particular embodiment is not necessarilylimited to that embodiment and can be practiced with any otherembodiment(s).

As used herein, “about” will be understood by persons of ordinary skillin the art and will vary to some extent depending upon the context inwhich it is used. If there are uses of the term which are not clear topersons of ordinary skill in the art, given the context in which it isused, “about” will mean up to plus or minus 10% of the particular term.

The use of the terms “a” and “an” and “the” and similar referents in thecontext of describing the elements (especially in the context of thefollowing claims) are to be construed to cover both the singular and theplural, unless otherwise indicated herein or clearly contradicted bycontext. Recitation of ranges of values herein are merely intended toserve as a shorthand method of referring individually to each separatevalue falling within the range, unless otherwise indicated herein, andeach separate value is incorporated into the specification as if it wereindividually recited herein. All methods described herein can beperformed in any suitable order unless otherwise indicated herein orotherwise clearly contradicted by context. The use of any and allexamples, or exemplary language (e.g., “such as”) provided herein, isintended merely to better illuminate the embodiments and does not pose alimitation on the scope of the claims unless otherwise stated. Nolanguage in the specification should be construed as indicating anynon-claimed element as essential.

In one aspect, a secondary battery is provided having a high specificcapacity and good cycleablility, and that can be used safely. Thesecondary battery includes a positive electrode (cathode), a negativeelectrode (anode), an electrolyte, and a separator. The cathode includesan alkali (Li or Na) source material configured to supply lithium orsodium to the battery. The secondary batteries include, but are notlimited to, lithium ion batteries, lithium air batteries, lithium sulfurbatteries, sodium batteries, and other rechargeable batteries. Alsoincluded are the cathodes for such secondary batteries, procedures forpreparing such cathode and batteries, and methods of operating asecondary battery including such a cathode. In some embodiments, thecathode also includes an cathode active material.

The secondary batteries and cathodes described herein are “as-prepared”secondary batteries and cathodes. As used herein, “as-prepared” refersto a cathode or battery, as prepared, prior to any charging of thebattery or cathode, or discharging of the battery or cathode. The“as-prepared” does not imply any sort of time constraint, or in otherwords, the cathode or battery may actually have been prepared long ago,but it was not subjected to any charging or discharging process.Accordingly, the as-prepared cathode or battery has not been subjectedto electrochemical processes that would generate any lithium or sodiumspecies other those species that were included in the battery or cathodein the first instance. In some embodiments, the secondary battery is anon-discharged secondary battery. In other embodiments, the cathode is anon-discharged cathode.

The alkaline source materials, are materials that may be activated andsupply lithium or sodium ions for secondary batteries. Accordingly, analkaline source material provides, at least a portion of, thetransporter species in a battery: e.g. the lithium ions or the sodiumions. The alkaline source materials includes lithium source materials,in some embodiments. In other embodiments, the alkaline source materialis a sodium source material. The alkaline source material includes, butis not limited to, Li₂O (lithia), Li₂O₂, LiF, LiCl, Li₂Br, Li₂S, Na₂O,Na₂O₂, Na₂S, NaF, and NaCl. Where the secondary battery is a lithium ionbattery, a lithium sulfur battery, or a lithium air battery, thealkaline source material may include, but is not limited to, Li₂O(lithia), Li₂O₂, LiF, LiCl, Li₂Br, or Li₂S. Where the secondary batteryis a sodium ion battery, a sodium sulfur battery, or a sodium airbattery, the alkaline source material may include, but is not limitedto, Na₂O, Na₂O₂, Na₂S, NaF, and NaCl. In some embodiments, the alkalinesource material is Li₂O₂ or Li₂O. In some embodiments, the alkalinesource material is lithia. It is noted that even where the battery is asodium battery, lithia may be used to balance the cells.

Where the battery is a lithium air battery, the cathode may include aporous carbon material, a catalyst, and the alkaline source material.For example, where the battery is a lithium air battery, the cathode mayinclude a porous carbon material, a catalyst, and Li₂O. In other lithiumion batteries, where the cathode includes non-lithiated activematerials, e.g. MnO₂, the amount of alkaline source material in thecathode may be from about 1 wt % to about 40 wt % in the as-preparedcathode. This includes where the amount of alkaline source material inthe cathode is from about 5 wt % to about 10 wt %, or from about 10 wt %to about 40 wt % in the as-prepared cathode. Where the cathode includeslithiated active materials, e.g. LiFePa₄, the amount of alkaline sourcematerial in the cathode is from about 1 wt % to about 10 wt % in theas-prepared cathode.

The alkaline source materials may be finely divided particles having amean particle size of less than 20 μm. For example, the particles mayhave a mean particle size of from about 1 nm to about 20 μm. In someembodiments, the particles may have a mean particle size of from about 1nm to about 1000 nm. In yet other embodiments, the particles may have amean particle size of from about 20 nm to about 500 nm. In yet otherembodiments, the particles may have a mean particle size of from about20 nm to about 100 nm. In yet other embodiments, the particles may havea mean particle size of from about 100 nm to about 10 μm.

For example, in some embodiments, the lithia is particulate. The Lithiamay have a mean particle size of less than 20 μm, or any of the sizeranges listed in the previous paragraph.

The alkaline source material, i.e. the lithia, may be dispersed in or onthe cathode by blending, coating, vapor-phase deposition, spraying,firing, and liquid-phase deposition, chemical vapor deposition (CVD),electrochemical deposition, atomic layer deposition (ALD), moltenmethods utilizing an arc melting furnace, a high frequency inductionheater, mechanical alloying, gas atomizing, or other mechanical orchemical means. The lithia may be blended into the cathode material,coated on the cathode, coated on cathode side of the surface of aseparator, or coated on a current collector. In some embodiments, lithiaand the cathode material may be mixed together with a binder, and anyother desired materials, to produce a slurry that is then applied to acurrent collector and dried to form the cathode.

In addition to the alkaline source material the cathode may include acatalyst configured to activate the lithia at low voltage to releaselithium ions. Such catalysts may include, but are not limited to, porouscarbon, nanostructured carbon functionalized, polymers, transition metaloxides, non-precious metals, precious metals and metal alloys.

The cathodes, or the cathode(s) of the secondary battery, also include aprimary cathodic material. In some embodiments, the cathode includes amixture of the alkaline source material and the primary cathodicmaterial. The primary cathodic material may include a lithiated positiveactive material, a non-lithiated positive active material, a sodiatedpositive active material, a non-sodiated positive active material, or amixture of any two or more thereof. In some embodiments, the primarycathodic material may include a lithiated positive active material, asodiated positive active material, or a mixture of any two or morethereof.

The primary cathodic material may include a positive active materialthat is configured to reversibly insert, or de-insert lithium or sodium.For example, the positive active material may be configured toreversibly insert, or de-insert lithium from about 1.5 V to about 5.0 Vvs. lithium. Alternatively, the positive active material may beconfigured to reversibly insert, or de-insert sodium from 1.2 to 5.0 Vvs. lithium. As used herein, “insert” or “de-insert” is used to refer tothe movement of either the lithium or sodium ion(s) into, or out of,respectively, the cathode material either through absorption,adsorption, intercalation, conversion, or alloying.

For lithium secondary batteries, or cathodes to be used in lithiumsecondary batteries, the primary cathodic material may include eitherlithiated materials or lithium transition metal rich oxide composites.For example, such materials and composites include, but are not limitedto, MnO₂, V₂O₅, LiVO₃, MoS₂, FeS₂, S, air (oxygen), FeF₃, FeF₂, aspinel, an olivine, a carbon-coated olivine, LiFePO₄, LiCoO₂, LiNiO₂,LiNi_(1-x)Co_(y)M⁴ _(z)O₂, LiMn_(0.5)Ni_(0.5)O₂, Li_(1+x)Mn_(2-z)M⁴_(y)O_(4-m)X¹ _(n), LiFe_(1-z)M⁶ _(y)PO_(4-m)X¹ _(n),LiMn_(1/3)Co_(1/3)Ni_(1/3)O₂, LiMn₂O₄, LiFeO₂, LiM⁴ _(0.5)Mn_(1.5)O₄,Li_(1+x″)Ni_(α)Mn_(β)Co_(γ)M⁵ _(δ)O_(2-z″)F_(z″),Li₂MnO₃—Li_(a)M_(b)M′_(c)M″_(d)O_(e), Li_(n′)B¹ ₂(M²O₄)₃ (Nasicon),Li₂MSiO₄, or a mixture of any two or more thereof, wherein M² is P, S,Si, W, or Mo; M⁴ is Al, Mg, Ti, B, Ga, Si, Ni, or Co; M⁵ is Mg, Zn, Al,Ga, B, Zr, or Ti; A is Li, Ag, Cu, Na, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, or Zn; M⁶ isAl, Mg, Ti, B, Ga, Si, Ni, Mn or Co; M, M′, and M″ are transitionmetals; B¹ is Ti, V, Cr, Fe, or Zr; X¹ is S or F; 0≦x≦0.3; 0≦y≦0.5;0≦z≦0.5; 0≦m≦0.5; 0≦n≦0.5; 0≦x″≦0.4; 0≦a≦2; 0≦b≦1; 0≦c≦1; 0≦d≦1; 0≦α≦1;0≦β≦1; 0≦γ≦1; 0≦δ≦0.4; 0≦z″≦0.4; 0≦n′≦3; 0<a+b+c+d<6; 0<e≦4; and0<α+<+γ+.

The primary cathodic material may include, in some embodiments, aspinel, an olivine, or a carbon-coated olivine. For example, the primarycathodic material may be, according to an embodiment, a spinel manganeseoxide of formula of Li_(1+x)Mn_(2-z)M⁴ _(y)O_(4-m)X¹ _(n), wherein M⁴ isAl, Mg, Ti, B, Ga, Si, Ni, or Co; X¹ is S or F; 0≦x≦0.3; 0≦y≦0.5;0≦z≦0.5; 0≦m≦0.5; and 0≦n≦0.5. The primary cathodic material may be,according to an embodiment, an olivine of formula of LiFe_(1-z)M⁶_(y)PO_(4-m)X¹ _(n) or a mixture of any two or more such olivines;wherein M⁶ is Al, Mg, Ti, B, Ga, Si, Ni, Mn or Co; X¹ is S or F;0≦x≦0.3; 0≦y≦0.5; 0≦z≦0.5; 0≦m≦0.5; and 0≦n≦0.5.

The primary cathodic material may include a blend of a spinel andLi_(1+x″)Ni_(α)Mn_(β)Co_(γ)M⁵ _(δ′)O_(2-z″)F_(z″), wherein M⁵ is Mg, Zn,Al, Ga, B, Zr, or Ti; 0≦x″≦0.4; 0≦α≦1; 0≦β≦1; 0≦γ≦1; 0≦δ≦0.4; 0≦z″≦0.4;and 0<α+β+γ+δ. The ratio of the spinel to theLi_(1+x″)Ni_(α)Mn_(β)Co_(γ)M⁵ _(δ′)O_(2-z″)F_(z″) may be from about 0.5wt % to about 98 wt %. Alternatively, the primary cathode may include ablend of a olivine or a carbon-coated olivine, andLi_(1+x″)Ni_(α)Mn_(β)Co_(γ)M⁵ _(δ′)O_(2-z″)F_(z″), wherein M⁵ is Mg, Zn,Al, Ga, B, Zr, or Ti; 0≦x″≦0.4; 0≦α≦1; 0≦β≦1; 0≦γ≦1; 0≦δ≦0.4; 0≦z″≦0.4;and 0<α+β+γ+γ. The ratio of the ratio of the olivine or carbon-coatedolivine to the Li_(1+x″)Ni_(α)Mn_(β)Co_(γ)M⁵ _(γ′)O_(2-z″)F_(z″) may befrom about 0.5 wt % to about 98 wt %.

The primary cathodic material may include a non-lithiated material suchas MnO₂, V₂O₅, LiVO₃, MoS₂, FeS₂, S, air (oxygen), FeF₃, FeF₂, or amixture of any two or more thereof. In other embodiments, the primarycathodic material includes S. In some embodiments, the primary cathodicmaterial is air (oxygen).

Mixing of lithium transition metal rich oxide composites (e.g.Li_(1.2)Ni_(0.15)Co_(0.1)Mn_(0.55)O₂) with Li₂O may lead to asignificant activation of Li₂O which provide a high capacity (e.g. about800 mAh/g in Example 12 and about 1140 mAh/g in Example 12) based on theweight of Li₂O. Li₂O may be mixed with lithium transition metal richoxide composites (e.g. LiMO₂-Li₂M′O₃; M, M′ are Ni, Mn, V, Ti, Cu, Co,Cr, or Fe) and non-lithiated cathode materials (e.g. MnO₂, S, V₂O₅,MnF₃, FeF₃). In such a mixture, the cell configuration may be a mixtureof Li₂O, a lithium manganese rich oxide composite (e.g. LiMO₂-Li₂M′O₃,where M and M′ are Ni, Mn, Co, Cr, or Fe) and non-lithiated material asthe cathode, and either graphite, a carbonaceous material, Si, Sn, SiO,Si—C, Li₄Ti₅O₁₂, a tin oxide, a tin carbon, a composite tin alloy, atransition metal oxide, a lithium metal nitride, or a mixture of any twoor more thereof as the anode.

In another embodiment, a lithiated cathode material, such as, but notlimited to, LiMn₂O₄, LiFePO₄, or LiMn_(1/3)Co_(1/3)Ni_(1/3)O₂ may bemixed with Li₂O and a small amount of lithium transition metal richoxide composite (e.g. LiMO₂-Li₂M′O₃, where M and M′ are Ni, Mn, Co, Cr,or Fe). In this case, the anode may be either graphite, a carbonaceousmaterial, Si, Sn, SiO, Si—C, Li₄Ti₅O₁₂, a tin oxide, a tin carbon, acomposite tin alloy, a transition metal oxide, a lithium metal nitride,or a mixture of any two or more thereof. As used herein a tin carbon isa tin-carbon composite, a carbon-coated tin, or a tin-carbon alloy.

Where the cathode is for use in a sodium ion electrochemical cell, theprimary cathodic material may include NaM_(1-x)M′_(x)PO₄,Na_(x)M_(y)M′_(z)O₂, Na₂FePO₄F, Na₂MnPO₄F, NaFeSO₄F, NaMnSO₄F,NaV_(1-a)Cr_(a)PO₄F, Na₂S, Na₂Se, or a mixture of any two or morethereof, wherein 0<x; 0<y+z; M is Mn, Ni, Fe, Co, or Cu; M′ is Cr or Mg;and 0≦a≦1.

In addition to the alkali source material and primary cathodic material,the cathode may include a current collector, a porous carbon (e.g.conductive) material, and/or a polymeric binder. The current collectormay include copper, stainless steel, titanium, tantalum, platinum, gold,aluminum, nickel, cobalt nickel alloy, highly alloyed ferritic stainlesssteel containing molybdenum and chromium; or nickel-, chromium-, ormolybdenum-containing alloys. The current collector may be a foil, mesh,or screen, and the porous carbon material and optional metal oxide arecontacted with the current collector by casting, pressing, or rollingthe mixture thereto. The porous carbon material may include microporouscarbon, mesoporous carbon, mesoporous microbeads, graphite, expandablegraphite, carbon black, or carbon nanotubes. Commercial examples ofcarbon black include, but are not limited to, Super P, Black Pearl 2000,Denka Black, Vulcan XC72R, Ketjen black. The polymeric binder mayinclude poly(acrylonitrile), poly(vinylidene fluoride), polyvinylalcohol, polyethylene, polystyrene, polyethylene oxide,polytetrafluoroethylene, polyimide, styrene butadiene rubber, carboxymethyl cellulose, gelatin, or a copolymer of any two or more suchpolymers.

The anode in the secondary batteries described above may includegraphite, Li metal, Si, Si—C, SiO, Sn, Sb, tin oxide, Li₄Ti₅O₁₂, and thelike. While the cathode includes lithia, the lithia may be activatedduring the initial charges and supply lithium source for batteries. Thelithia may supply lithium for the anode, and after discharge, thelithium is transmitted from anode to cathode, then supply for thecathode material during battery cycling. The Lithia may compensate anodeinitial irreversible capacity loss and supply for the cathode material,especially for non-lithiated cathode materials.

In addition to a cathode and anode, the batteries may include anelectrolyte. The electrolyte may include a solvent and a salt. Suitablesolvents for use in the electrolytes are typically polar aproticsolvents. Illustrative solvents include, but are not limited to,ethylene carbonate (EC), dimethylcarbonate (DMC), diethylcarbonate(DEC), propylene carbonate (PC), dioloxane, γ-butyrolactone,δ-butyrolactone, dimethyl ether, a silane, siloxane N-methyl acetamide,acetonitrile, an acetal, a ketal, esters, a carbonates, a sulfone, asulfite, sulfolane, an aliphatic ether, a cyclic ether, a glyme, apolyether, a phosphate ester, a siloxane, a N-alkylpyrrolidone, fluoroether and fluoro esters, fluoroethylene carbonate, or adiponitrile. Ofcourse, a mixture of any two or more such solvents may also be used. Insome embodiments the solvent is a mixture of solvents such as, but notlimited to, EC-DMC, EC-DEC, EC-PC, EC-PC-DMC, EC-PC-DEC, or EC-DEC-DMC.In some embodiments, fluorinated derivatives of the above solvents maybe used. Suitable salt materials include, but are not limited to, alithium salt, a sodium salt, an ammonium salt, an alkylammonium salt, alithium polysulfide, a or a lithium polyselenide. Illustrative salts areLiPF₆, LiClO₄, (C₄BO₈Li), (C₂BO₄F₂Li), LiPF₄C₂O₄, Li(CF₃SO₂)₂N,LiC(SO₂CF₃)₃, (Li(C₂F₅SO₂)₂N), LiCF₃SO₃, Li₂B₁₂X_(12-n)H_(n),Li₂B₁₀X_(10-n′)H^(n′), where X is a halogen, n is an integer from 0 to12, and n′ is an integer from 0 to 10, LiAlF₄, LiBF₄, Li(FSO₂)₂N,Li₂SO₄, Na₂SO₄, NaPF₆, NaClO₄, LiAlO₂ LiSCN, LiBr, LiI, LiAsF₆,LiB(Ph)₄, LiSO₃CH₃, Li₂S_(x″), Li₂Se_(x″), (LiS_(x″)R)_(y) or(LiSe_(x″)R)_(y); wherein x″ is an integer from 1 to 20, y is an integerfrom 1 to 3 and R is H, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, ether, F, CF₃, COCF₃,SO₂CF₃, or SO₂F.

In addition to a cathode and anode, the batteries may include aseparator. Illustrative separators include, but are not limited to,polyethylene, polypropylene, or polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF).

In another aspect, a method of operating a secondary battery isprovided. In the method, a as-prepared secondary battery is provided,the secondary battery having a cathode, an anode, a separator, andelectrolyte. The as-prepared secondary battery cathode includes analkali source material that includes a lithium material, such as Lithia.In particular, the secondary battery is manufactured with lithia blendwith cathode active material in the positive electrode. The freshlyassembled battery is in a discharged state. For example, the freshlyassembled battery may be fully discharged, with all the alkaline sourcematerial, i.e. lithium or sodium, in the positive electrode of theas-prepared battery. The method may include charging the as-preparedsecondary battery by transmitting lithium (or sodium) ions from positiveelectrode to the negative electrode through the electrolyte. Thesecondary battery may then be discharged by transmitting lithium ionsfrom the anode to cathode through the electrolyte, and then chargingagain by transmitting lithium (or sodium) ions from cathode to anodethrough the electrolyte.

In a lithium secondary battery, during the initial charging, lithia inthe cathode may be activated by applying a sufficiently high potential.In the discharging process the cathode active material incorporates thelithium from the anode side, and then the lithiated cathode materialreleases lithium ions to anode during subsequent charging.

The charging and discharging may occur for numerous cycles whilemaintaining the high capacities of the cathode active material andmaintaining safe operating conditions. In some cases a catalyst may beused to activate the lithia at lower voltage. Such catalysts include,but are not limited to, are porous carbon, nanostructured carbonfunctionalized, polymers, transition metal oxides, non-precious metals,precious metals or metal alloys.

Now, turning to the figures, a secondary battery, G, according to anembodiment of the present invention is illustrated in FIG. 1. Thesecondary battery G includes a positive electrode (i.e. cathode) A, anegative electrode (i.e. anode) B, a separator C for separating thepositive electrode and the negative electrode, and an electrolyte inelectrochemical communication with the positive electrode and thenegative electrode. The secondary battery G also may include a currentcollector D that is in electrical contact with the cathode and a currentcollector E that is electrical contact with the anode. The currentcollectors D and E may be in electrical contact with one another throughan external circuit (not shown). The secondary battery G may exhibit ajelly roll or stacked construction. A lithium source material (i.e.lithia) F is incorporated into the positive electrode side. As shown inFIG. 1, F is located between the current collector D and separator C,and is distributed in the cathode A, coated on the surface of cathode A,coated on cathode side of the surface of separator C, or coated on thecurrent collector D.

The cathode A may be formed of an active material, which is typicallymixed with a conductive carbon agent and a binder polymer. The activematerial used in the cathode A is preferable a material that can belithiated at a voltage of about 1.5 V to about 5.0 V versus lithium.Both lithiated or non-lithiated materials such as, but not limited to,MnO₂, MoS₂, V₂O₅, LiVO₃, S, LiMn₂O₄, LiCoO₂, LiNiO₂, LiFePO₄, or amixture thereof, can be used as the active material. Lithia, F, may bedistributed in the cathode A as lithium source for the battery. Theanode, B, may be formed of an anode active material, which is typicallymixed with a conductive carbon agent and a polymeric binder. In somecases, the anode may include lithium metal. The anode active materialmay be a material that is configured to be lithiated from about 0 V to2.0 V versus lithium, with a high capacity material such as carbonaceousmaterials, Si, Si—C, SiO, Sn, tin oxides, composite tin alloys,transition metal oxides, lithium metal nitrides or lithium metal oxide.In some cases, the cathode A may contain a minor amount of catalyst inorder to activate the lithia at lower voltage. Where the cathodecontains a catalyst, the catalyst may be present from about 1 wt % toabout 30 wt % of the cathode. In some embodiments, the catalyst ispresent from about 1 wt % to about 20 wt %. In further embodiments, thecatalyst is present from about 1 wt % to about 5 wt %.

When lithia F is distributed in the cathode A for the battery, it couldsupply lithium source for the battery. Non-lithiated materials such asMnO₂, V₂O₅ or MnS₂ or a mixture of any two or more thereof, may be usedas the active cathode material. Accordingly, the lithia F in the cathodeside may be of a sufficient amount to supply lithium source. As such,the anode B need not include a lithiated material. Because non-lithiatedmaterials generally have a higher specific capacity than lithiatedactive materials, they can provide increased power. Thus, if the lithiummay be provided from an alkali source material in the cathode, highspecific capacity and increased power batteries may be produces.

The cathode A may be a lithiated material such as LiFePO₄, LiMnPO₄,LiCoO₂, LiMn₂O₄, LiNi_(1/3)Co_(1/3)Mn_(1/3)O₂, LiNiO₂,LiNi_(0.5)Mn_(1.5)O₄, or Li₂MnO₃*LiMO₂. Lithia F, in FIG. 1, isdistributed in the cathode A. Where the alkali source material islithia, both the lithiated material (i.e. cathode active material) andthe lithia could supply lithium ions for the battery. Accordingly, insome embodiments, a lithiated, cathode active material (such as LiFePO₄,LiMnPO₄, LiCoO₂, LiMn₂O₄, LiNiO₂, LiNi_(0.5)Mn₁₅O₄, Li₂MnO₃*LiMO₂ or amixture of any two or more thereof) may be included in the cathode A, anon-removable lithium material may be used as an anode (such ascarbonaceous materials, Si, SiO—, Si—C, Sn, a tin oxides, composite tinalloys, transition metal oxides, lithium metal nitrides, or a mixture ofany two or more thereof) as anode B. Lithia F is in the cathode side.Separator C and electrolyte may be used to form a secondary battery.

For the anode B a carbonaceous materials, Si, Si—C, SiO, Sn, tin oxide,a composite tin alloy, a transition metal oxide, or a lithium metalnitride may be used. Graphite or graphitization carbons are currentlycommercial used as an anode material ion lithium ion batteries. Themaximum theoretical capacity of a graphite anode is 372 mAh/g. Graphiteor carbon anodes typically consume between 7 and 20% of the insertedinitial lithium ions to build a passivation layer (SEI) to protect thegraphite from continuous chemical reaction with the electrolyte. As thislithium is provided from the cathode material some amount of cathodematerial will not be active. The presence of a small amount of alkalisource material such as Li₂O (Li₂O with theoretical capacity of 1786mAh/g vs. LiCoO₂ with theoretical capacity of 270 mAh/g) in the cathodewill increase the battery energy density as this lithium is going tocompensate the lithium loss due the formation of passivation layer (SEI)on the anode.

The low specific capacity of graphite anodes is a limiting factor in thedevelopment of Li-ion batteries with high energy density. To increasethe specific energy of lithium ion batteries, alternative anodematerials with higher capacity are needed. Si is one of potential anodematerial, its superior theoretical specific capacity of 3579 mAh/g, thehighest capacity of any known anode materials at room temperature otherthan Li metal. However, one of problems is that Si-based anodes sufferfrom huge irreversible capacity loss during initial discharge and chargeprocess, which consumes a lot of lithium from the cathode side and lowercapacity of the batteries. So Si anodes were not considered to satisfythe needs of practical applications. However, using Si as an anode, thecapacity is about 3000 mAh/g, but the anode first cycle efficiency islow, in some case, lower than 50%. According, an Si anode willirreversibly consume a large amount of lithium source from cathode A.However, where the present cathodes with the alkali source materials areused with a Si anode, the Lithia may compensate for the irreversiblecapacity of the anode and maintain cathode material itself efficiency.

In lithium-air (oxygen) batteries, the positive electrode is a porousactivated positive electrode such as a porous carbon material. The anodeis typically lithium metal. Where the cathode of a lithium-air batteryis as above, with an alkali source material such as lithia in the porouscarbon, it is not necessary to have the lithium metal as anode.

The batteries and electrochemical cells described herein may be used forvarious types of applications. For example, the secondary batteries maybe used in portable electronics such as cell phones, laptop computers,and cameras, and in large power applications such in electric vehicles,hybrid electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles and smartgrids.

The secondary batteries and cathodes described herein have high specificcapacity, safe operating conditions, and good cycleability. Inparticular, because an alkali source material, i.e. lithia, is presentin the positive electrode and supplies the lithium source for thebattery, non-lithiated materials may be used as the preferred cathodeactive material in the secondary battery. Such non-lithiated materialsmay have higher specific capacities than the lithiated materialpresently used in lithium ion battery. Unlike traditional lithiumsecondary batteries having non-lithiated cathode active materials andmetallic lithium anodes, it has been discovered that secondary batteriesproduced non-lithiate cathode active material with lithium sourcematerial lithia of the invention combine with the anodes operate safelyand do not generate lithium dendrite upon cycling. The alkali sourcematerials, such as lithia, in the cathode may compensate forirreversible capacity loss of the anode such as Si and improve thecathode material coefficient of utilization.

The present invention, thus generally described, will be understood morereadily by reference to the following examples, which are provided byway of illustration and are not intended to be limiting of the presentinvention.

Examples Example 1

A slurry in N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) solvent was prepared with 84%lithia (Li₂O), 8% polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) polymer binder and 8%carbon black. The slurry was coated onto an aluminum current collectorfoil using a doctor-blade, and the solvent was evaporated in the oven at70° C. to form an electrode.

The electrode was then evaluated in a CR2032 coin cell with a 1.2 MLiPF₆ solution in ethylene carbonate: ethylmethyl carbonate (3:7 byweight, Tomiyama) as electrolyte.

The voltage profile of the coin cell using the above-prepared electrodeas the positive electrode, and using Li metal as negative electrode isshown in FIG. 2. During the initial charge at 4.9 V, the positiveelectrode was activated. The cell shows a long charge plateau above 4.5V. This plateau is from the Li₂O component. In this process, oxygen isremoved, or at least partially removed, from the structure and at sametime the lithium migrates to the anode.

Example 2

An electrode was made as above in NMP with 84% chemical manganesedioxide (CMD; a non-lithiated cathode material), 8% PVDF and 8% carbonblack. The CMD electrode was evaluated in a half-cell using Li metal asanode, and 1.2 M LiPF₆ in EC:EMC (3:7 in weight) as an electrolyte. Thedischarge and charge curves for the coin cell are shown in FIG. 3A. Inthis half-cell, it provides an initial open voltage-circuit voltage of3.6 V. It yielded an initial discharge capacity of about 200 mAh/g whendischarged to a cut-off voltage of 2.0 V with 10 mA/g. The cell was thencharged to 4.6 V and cycled between 2.0 and 4.6 V. The charge anddischarge curves are plotted in FIG. 3B. After 20 cycles, the cellcapacity drops to about 150 mAh/g. This illustrates a typicalelectrochemical performance of manganese dioxide as cathode material inlithium ion batteries.

Example 3

CMD was used as cathode, and Li₂O was used as a lithium resourcematerial, with both chemicals being blended in the positive electrode.The electrode was prepared similarly to that of Example 1 in NMP with62% CMD, 22% Li₂O, 8% PVDF and 8% carbon black. The electrode wasprepared in an inert atmosphere glove-box. The half-cell was built usingthe electrode as a cathode and lithium metal as an anode. FIG. 4Aillustrates the charge and discharge behavior of the cell. Initially,the cell was charged to 4.9 V, with a flat plateau above 4.5 V. This issimilar to the results for the pure Li₂O electrode in example 1.Following discharge to 2.0 V, the curve shows a plateau at 3.0 V.Cycling was then continued between 2.0 to 4.9 V. During the secondcharge, the flat plateau is diminished compared to the plateau of thefirst charge, indicating that the Li₂O that was activated is anirreversible process. After that, only the CMD acts as a rechargeablecathode in the lithium ion batteries. After 20 cycles, the cell capacityfaded to about 180 mAh/g.

Example 4

A cathode was prepared as in Example 1 in NMP with 62% CMD, 22% Li₂O, 8%PVDF and 8% carbon black. A full cell was prepared with the cathode andan anode of 90% graphite (ConocoPhillips A12), and 10% PVDF. The fullcell also employed a separator of Celgard 2325 as separator, 1.2 M LiPF₆in EC:EMC solution (3:7 in weight) as electrolyte. The full cell wastested as a CR2032 coin cell. The initial charge and discharge curvesfor the cell are shown in FIG. 5A. The cell showed an open voltage closeto 0 V. The cell was charged using a 5 mA/g current to charge to 4.8 V.During charging the cell exhibited a flat plateau during the firstcharge, which is attributed to the Li₂O supplying Li ion to the anodeside. Subsequently, the cell was discharged to 2.0 V. The firstdischarge capacity was about 120 mAh/g. In this discharge process, theCMD was lithiated. Lithium ion only comes from the lithium in graphiteanode. It is shown that the Li₂O supplies the Li ion to the anode andback to the cathode. It also indicates that there is no need for Limetal as an anode, because the lithium supplied from the Li₂O issufficient for battery operation.

Example 5

In this example, vanadium oxide (V₂O₅) was used as cathode material, andLi₂O was used as a lithium resource in the cathode. The electrode wasprepared from an NMP slurry as in Example 1 with 56% V₂O₅, 28% Li₂O and8% PVDF and 8% carbon black. The electrode was prepared in theglove-box. A half-cell was built using this electrode as the cathode andlithium metal as anode. Charge and discharge behavior of the half-cellis shown in FIG. 6. As shown, initially the cell was charged to 4.8 V,where it exhibits a plateau at high voltage with about 125 mAh/g, whichis related Li₂O decomposition. The cell was then discharged to 2.6 V,with the discharge curve showing typical V₂O₅ characters, with twoplateaus about 3.2 to 3.4 V. The discharge capacity was about 110 mAh/g.The cell was then again charged to 4.8 V. From 3.2 V to 3.4 V anothertwo charge plateaus occur, indicating that the two redox couples fromV₂O₅ are readily reversible. Up to high voltage at 4.8 V, no plateausoccurred as during the initial charge, which indicated that all the Li₂Owas activated.

Example 6

A cathode was prepared according to Example 1 using 84% LiMn₂O₄, 8% PVDFand 8% carbon black. A half-cell of LiMn₂O₄/Li was tested and the chargeand discharge capacity is illustrated in FIG. 7. The charge capacity anddischarge capacity of the LiMn₂O₄ was 117 mAh/g and 113 mAh/g,respectively, providing for an efficiency of about 96.5%. Based upon thecharge and discharge curve, the operating work potential is about 4.0 V,with two flat plateaus on the charge and discharge curves.

Example 7

A cathode was prepared according to Example 1 using spinel LiMn₂O₄ wasused as the cathode, and Li₂O was used as a lithium resource. Thecathode included 78% LiMn₂O₄, 6% Li₂O, 8% PVDF, and 8% carbon black. Theelectrode was prepared in the inert atmosphere glove-box. A half-cell ofthe cathode was prepared, along with lithium metal as anode. FIG. 9illustrates a cut-off voltage of 4.8V for the cell, and a cell openvoltage of about 3.0 V. After application of a current, the voltage ofthe cell increased, and two plateaus are exhibited at a voltage of 4.0V, which is typical for LiMn₂O₄ as cathode. The capacity of the cell wasabout 120 mAh/g. The mechanism is believed to be extraction of thelithium ion from the LiMn₂O₄ structure, where it is then transferred tothe anode side through the electrolyte.

Above 4.3 V, the reaction related with LiMn₂O₄ is complete, asillustrated by the increasing voltage after the plateau. At a voltageabove 4.4 V, another plateau forms on the charge curve, and is due tolithium extraction from the Li₂O compound. Thus, above 4.4 V, the Li₂Ois activated and acts as a lithium source for the battery. This lithiumis also transmitted from the cathode side to the anode side through theelectrolyte. The cell was then discharged to 3.0 V. Upon discharge, thelithium is transmitted from the anode to the cathode. The LiMn₂O₄cathode is reversible. Upon discharge, two plateaus are formed at 4 V,with a capacity of about 110 mAh/g. The Li₂O activation and release oflithium is an irreversible process that occurs during the initial chargeprocess.

Example 8

An electrode was prepared as in Example 1 with a slurry prepared in NMPof 84% Si, 8% PVDF binder, and 8% carbon black. The slurry was coatedonto a copper current collector foil using doctor-blade, followed bydrying in the oven at 70° C. A CR2032 coin cell was prepared with theelectrode, lithium metal as an anode, and an electrolyte 1.2 M LiPF₆solution in EC:EMC (3:7 by weight, Tomiyama). The open voltage of thefreshly assembled half-cell was about 3.0 V, The cell was discharge to0.04 V and charged to 3.0 V. During discharge, the lithium ion wouldtransmit from lithium metal to Si electrode through the electrolyte. Asillustrated in FIG. 8 this yielded an initial discharge capacity of 3100mAh/g. The cell can then discharge by transmission of the lithium ionsfrom the Si electrode to the negative, Li electrode, through theelectrolyte. Upon discharge, the charge capacity was only about 1200mAh/g, which indicates that only about 40% of the discharge capacity isreversible. In other words, only about 40% of the Li inserted into theSi can be used for lithium ion batteries.

A full cell (CR2032 coin cell) was then prepared with the Si electrodeas an anode, and a cathode of LiMn₂O₄ as cathode. The cathode included84% LiMn₂O₄, 8% PVDF, and 8% carbon black. The Si anode included 84% Si,8% PVDF, and 8% carbon black. The electrolyte for the full cell was acommercial 1.2 M LiPF₆ solution in EC:EMC (3:7 by weight, Tomiyama). Fora as-prepared full cell assembly, the open voltage was close to 0 V.Upon application of a current, the voltage of the cell increased, aslithium ions were transmitted from the cathode to the anode. FIG. 10illustrates the charge curve having a charge plateau at about 4 V, and acharge capacity of about 110 mAh/g. The charge capacity was determinedby the amount of LiMn₂O₄ cathode material. After discharging the cell to3.0 V, a plateau was exhibited at 4 V. However, the discharge capacitywas only about 63 mAh/g, which indicates that the cell was only about57% reversible with respect to capacity and the fact that some lithiumwas consumed by the silicon anode.

Example 9

In this example, a full cell (CR2032 coin cell) was prepared. Thecathode for the full cell was based upon 78% LiMn₂O₄, 6% Li₂O, 8% PVDF,and 8% carbon black. The anode for the full cell was based upon the Sianode having 84% Si, 8% PVDF, and 8% carbon black. The electrolyte forthe full cell was a commercial 1.2 M LiPF₆ solution in EC:EMC (3:7 byweight, Tomiyama). For a as-prepared assembly, the open voltage is closeto 0 V, but upon application of a current, the voltage of the cellincreased. During the current application, the lithium ion istransmitted from the cathode LiMn₂O₄ and lithium source material, Li₂O,to the negative electrode Si through the electrolyte. As shown by thegraphs in FIG. 11, this occurs through two steps. The charge curve has acharge plateau at about 4 V, which related with the cathode LiMn₂O₄, andthe charge capacity is about 110 mAh/g. At a voltage of 4.1 V, thecharge plateau ends as the lithium from the cathode is transmitted tothe anode. Upon additional charging, the voltage increases, and anotherplateau is exhibited above 4.4 V, and is related the Li₂O activationprocess. The cell was then discharged to 3.0 V, where it exhibits a flatplateau at 4 V related with cathode LiMn₂O₄. The discharge capacity canreach about 90 mAh/g based on the cathode material, indicating thecharge/discharge is about 81% reversible. The reversible capacity of theSi anode is compensated for by the Li ions from the Li₂O, so theefficiency of the cathode was improve significantly. After 10 cycles,the cell capacity was about 70 mAh/g.

Example 10

In this example, Na_(0.75)Mn_(0.7)Ni_(0.23)O₂ oxide was used as acathode material. Na_(0.75)Mn_(0.7)Ni_(0.23)O₂ oxide was prepared byheating a mixture of Na₂CO₃ and Mn_(0.75)Ni_(0.25)CO₃ precursors at 900°C., in air for 16 hours. The cathode was prepared as a slurry in NMPwith 79% Na_(0.75)Mn_(0.7)Ni_(0.23)O₂ oxide, 3% Li₂O and 9% PVDF and 9%carbon black on an aluminum current collector. A comparative cathode wasalso prepared without the Li₂O, the cathode electrode including 80%Na_(0.75)Mn_(0.7)Ni_(0.23)O₂ oxide, 10% PVDF, and 10% carbon black. Hardcarbon was used as a sodium active anode. An anode laminate was preparedby mixing 80% hard carbon, 10% PVDF, and 10% carbon black. Theelectrolyte was 1M NaPF₆ in EC:EMC (3:7).

Sodium full cells containing active materials (with and without Li₂O)were charged to 4.85 V and discharged to 2 V. Without the presence ofLi₂O, the Na_(0.75)Mn_(0.7)Ni_(0.23)O₂ material delivers a dischargecapacity of 93 mAh/g (FIG. 12 B). Based on theNa_(0.75)Mn_(0.7)Ni_(0.23)O₂ oxide cathode amount, the presence of smallamount of Li₂O improves the discharge capacity to about 99 mAh/g, asshown in FIG. 12A. With the electrode that includes the Li₂O, a plateauis observed at about 4.75 V.

Example 11

In order to demonstrate that the activation of Li₂O is easily achievedwhen lithia is mixed with a lithium manganese rich composite material(e.g. LiMO₂ Li₂MnO₃, M=Ni, Mn, Co), a laminate was prepared using Li₂O,carbon, and Li_(1.2)Ni_(0.175)Co_(0.1)Mn_(0.525)O₂. The laminate wasprepared using 32 wt % Li_(1.2)Ni_(0.175)Co_(0.1)Mn_(0.525)O₂, 48 wt %Li₂O, 10 wt % PVDF, and 10 wt % carbon black. Lithium metal was used asan anode and the electrolyte was a commercial 1.2 M LiPF₆ solution inEC:EMC (3:7 by weight, Tomiyama). The coin cell was cycled using 10 mA/gof Li_(1.2)Ni_(0.175)Co_(0.1)Mn_(0.525)O₂ material current rate. Duringcharging, the lithium ion is transmitted from the cathodeLi_(1.2)Ni_(0.175)Co_(0.1)Mn_(0.525)O₂, where nearly 300 mAh/g isobtained. Lithium ion is also transmitted from the lithium sourcematerial, Li₂O, to the anode through the electrolyte where an extracapacity of about 1140 mAh/g of Li₂O was obtained, as illustrated by thegraphs in FIG. 13.

Example 12

A laminate was prepared as in Example 11 with 32/48/10/10 on a weightbasis of Li_(1.2)Ni_(0.15)Co_(0.1)Mn_(0.55)O₂, Li₂O, PVDF, and carbonblack, respectively. The current rate was increased from 10 mA/g to20mA/g of Li_(1.2)Ni_(0.15)Co_(0.1)Mn_(0.55)O₂. During charging, thelithium ion is transmitted from the cathodeLi_(1.2)Ni_(0.15)Co_(0.1)Mn_(0.55)O₂ where nearly 300 mAh/g ofLi_(1.2)Ni_(0.15)Co_(0.1)Mn_(0.55)O₂ is obtained. Lithium ion is alsotransmitted from lithium source material, Li₂O, to the negativeelectrode Li through the electrolyte where an extra capacity of about800 mAh/g of Li₂O was obtained, as illustrated by the graphs in FIG. 14.

While certain embodiments have been illustrated and described, it shouldbe understood that changes and modifications can be made therein inaccordance with ordinary skill in the art without departing from thetechnology in its broader aspects as defined in the following claims.

The embodiments, illustratively described herein may suitably bepracticed in the absence of any element or elements, limitation orlimitations, not specifically disclosed herein. Thus, for example, theterms “comprising,” “including,” “containing,” etc. shall be readexpansively and without limitation. Additionally, the terms andexpressions employed herein have been used as terms of description andnot of limitation, and there is no intention in the use of such termsand expressions of excluding any equivalents of the features shown anddescribed or portions thereof, but it is recognized that variousmodifications are possible within the scope of the claimed technology.Additionally, the phrase “consisting essentially of” will be understoodto include those elements specifically recited and those additionalelements that do not materially affect the basic and novelcharacteristics of the claimed technology. The phrase “consisting of”excludes any element not specified.

The present disclosure is not to be limited in terms of the particularembodiments described in this application. Many modifications andvariations can be made without departing from its spirit and scope, aswill be apparent to those skilled in the art. Functionally equivalentmethods and compositions within the scope of the disclosure, in additionto those enumerated herein, will be apparent to those skilled in the artfrom the foregoing descriptions. Such modifications and variations areintended to fall within the scope of the appended claims. The presentdisclosure is to be limited only by the terms of the appended claims,along with the full scope of equivalents to which such claims areentitled. It is to be understood that this disclosure is not limited toparticular methods, reagents, compounds compositions or biologicalsystems, which can of course vary. It is also to be understood that theterminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particularembodiments only, and is not intended to be limiting.

In addition, where features or aspects of the disclosure are describedin terms of Markush groups, those skilled in the art will recognize thatthe disclosure is also thereby described in terms of any individualmember or subgroup of members of the Markush group.

As will be understood by one skilled in the art, for any and allpurposes, particularly in terms of providing a written description, allranges disclosed herein also encompass any and all possible subrangesand combinations of subranges thereof. Any listed range can be easilyrecognized as sufficiently describing and enabling the same range beingbroken down into at least equal halves, thirds, quarters, fifths,tenths, etc. As a non-limiting example, each range discussed herein canbe readily broken down into a lower third, middle third and upper third,etc. As will also be understood by one skilled in the art all languagesuch as “up to,” “at least,” “greater than,” “less than,” and the like,include the number recited and refer to ranges which can be subsequentlybroken down into subranges as discussed above. Finally, as will beunderstood by one skilled in the art, a range includes each individualmember.

All publications, patent applications, issued patents, and otherdocuments referred to in this specification are herein incorporated byreference as if each individual publication, patent application, issuedpatent, or other document was specifically and individually indicated tobe incorporated by reference in its entirety. Definitions that arecontained in text incorporated by reference are excluded to the extentthat they contradict definitions in this disclosure.

Other embodiments are set forth in the following claims.

What is claimed is:
 1. An as-prepared cathode for a secondary battery,the cathode comprising an alkaline source material comprising an alkalimetal oxide, an alkali metal sulfide, an alkali metal salt, or acombination of any two or more thereof.
 2. The as-prepared cathode ofclaim 1, wherein the alkaline source material comprises a lithium sourcematerial, a sodium source material, or a combination thereof.
 3. Theas-prepared cathode of claim 1, wherein the alkaline source materialcomprises a lithium source material.
 4. The as-prepared cathode of claim1, wherein the alkaline source material comprises a sodium sourcematerial.
 5. The as-prepared cathode of claim 1, wherein the alkalinesource material comprises Li₂O, Li₂O₂, Li₂S, LiF, LiCl, Li₂Br, or amixture of any two or more thereof.
 6. The as-prepared cathode of claim1, wherein the alkaline source material comprises Na₂O, Na₂O₂, Na₂S,NaF, NaCl, or a mixture of any two or more thereof.
 7. The as-preparedcathode of claim 1, wherein the alkaline source comprises Li₂O.
 8. Theas-prepared cathode of claim 1, wherein the cathode further comprises aprimary cathodic material.
 9. The as-prepared cathode of claim 8,wherein the primary cathodic material comprises a lithiated material, anon-lithiated material, a sodiated material, or a mixture of any two ormore thereof.
 10. The as-prepared cathode of claim 8, wherein theprimary cathodic material comprises a lithiated material comprising aspinel, an olivine, a carbon-coated olivine, LiFePO₄, LiCoO₂, LiNiO₂,LiNi_(1-x)Co_(y)M⁴ _(z)O₂, LiMn_(0.5)Ni_(0.5)O₂,LiMn_(1/3)Co_(1/3)Ni_(1/3)O₂, LiMn₂O₄, LiFeO₂, LiM⁴ _(0.5)Mn₁₅O₄,Li_(1+x″)Ni_(α)Mn_(β)Co_(γ)M⁵_(δ)O_(2-z″)F_(z″)Li₂MnO₃—Li_(a)M_(b)M′_(c)M″_(d)O_(e), Li_(n).B¹₂(M²O₄)₃ (Nasicon), Li₂MSiO₄, or a mixture of any two or more thereof,wherein M² is P, S, Si, W, or Mo; M⁴ is Al, Mg, Ti, B, Ga, Si, Mn, orCo; M⁵ is Mg, Zn, Al, Ga, B, Zr, or Ti; M, M′, and M″ are transitionmetals; B¹ is Ti, V, Cr, Fe, or Zr; 0≦x≦0.3; 0≦y≦0.5; 0≦z≦0.5; 0≦m≦0.5;0≦n≦0.5; 0≦x″≦0.4; 0≦a≦2; 0≦b≦1; 0≦c≦1; 0≦d≦1; 0≦α≦1; 0≦β≦1; 0≦γ≦1;0≦δ′≦0.4; 0≦z″≦0.4; 0≦n′≦3; 0<a+b+c+d, and 0<e.
 11. The as-preparedcathode of claim 8, wherein the primary cathode material comprises MnO₂,V₂O₅, LiVO₃, MoS₂, FeS₂, S, air (oxygen), FeF₃, FeF₂, or a mixture ofany two or more thereof.
 12. The as-prepared cathode of claim 8, whereinthe primary cathode material comprises S.
 13. The as-prepared cathode ofclaim 8, wherein the primary cathode material is air (oxygen).
 14. Theas-prepared cathode of claim 1 further comprising a polymeric binder.15. A secondary battery comprising: an as-prepared cathode comprisingand an alkaline source material, the alkaline source material comprisingan alkali metal oxide, an alkali metal sulfide, an alkali metal salt, ora combination of any two or more thereof; an anode comprising an anodeactive material; an electrolyte; and a separator.
 16. The secondarybattery of claim 15 which is a lithium ion battery, a lithium-sulfurbattery, or a lithium-air battery.
 17. The secondary battery of claim 15which is a sodium-ion battery, a sodium-sulfur battery, or a sodium-airbattery.
 18. The secondary battery of claim 15, wherein the alkalinesource material is Li₂O and the anode active material is a carbonmaterial, Li metal, Si, Si—C, SiO, Sn, Sb, tin oxide, a tin carbon, acomposite tin alloy, Li₄Ti₅O₁₂, a transition metal oxide, a lithiummetal nitride or a mixture of any two or more thereof.
 19. The secondarybattery of claim 15, wherein the as-prepared cathode further comprises alithium transition metal rich oxide composite, and a non-lithiatedmaterial.
 20. The secondary battery of claim 19, wherein the alkalinesource material is Li₂O, the lithium transition metal rich oxidecomposite is LiMO₂-Li₂M′O₃, wherein M and M′ are selected from the groupconsisting of Ni, Mn, V, Ti, Cu, Co, Cr, and Fe; and the non-lithiatedmaterial is selected from the group consisting of carbon materials,MnO₂, S, V₂O₅, MnF₃, and FeF₃.
 21. The secondary battery of claim 15,wherein the anode active material comprises lithium metal, Si, Sn, SiO,Si—C, Li₄Ti₅O₁₂, a tin oxide, a tin carbon, a carbon material, acomposite tin alloy, a transition metal oxide, a lithium metal nitride,or a mixture of any two or more thereof.
 22. The secondary battery ofclaim 15, wherein the alkaline source material is Li₂O, and the cathodefurther comprises a lithium transition metal rich oxide composite. 23.The secondary battery of claim 22, wherein the lithium transition metalrich oxide composite is LiMO₂-Li₂M′O₃, wherein M and M′ are selectedfrom the group consisting of Ni, Mn, V, Ti, Cu, Co, Cr, and Fe.